Wednesday, August 14, 2019
Psychopathology And Traumas Essay
Abstract            This paper is a literature review of studies and discussions of the effect of various stressors to children, such as violence, sexual abuse, and trauma. There are also some articles that explain how the human brain processes and adapts to these various factors. The goal of all these articles is to understand and explain the relationships between different stressors in the way that a child’s brain develops. They presume that the brain is the organ responsible for causing different children from reacting differently to the various stressors in their childhood. There is also a discussion analyzing the relationship between the size of the hippocampus and exposure to stress. These articles provide valuable insight into a very important aspect of human life, specifically, coping with trauma.     The article of Friedrich, Fisher, Broughton, Houston and Shafran discussed sexual behavior in children, with the goal of understanding the relationship between sexual behavior and sexual abuse. The authors of this article believed that the existing literature had gathered limited knowledge on the topic of normative sexual behavior among children (Friedrich, Fisher, Broughton, Houston & Shafran, 1998).            In order to achieve an understanding of normative childhood sexual behavior, the authors conducted a study of children between the ages two and twelve, whose sexual behaviors were rated by primary female caregivers, such as their parents and day care providers. The children were screened on whether they were sexually abused. The authors likewise used a 38-item scale called the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory, Third Version, to assess the children’s sexual behavior, the diversity of which could cover a wide range (Friedrich, Fisher, Broughton, Houston & Shafran, 1998).            After the study, the authors found that the children exhibited a broad range of sexual behaviors, such as such as exhibitionistic behavior or excessive modesty. Sexual behaviors also had different frequencies, and these are influenced by the age groups of the children, as well as other factors, like maternal education, family stress and violence, and number of hours spent in day care (Friedrich, Fisher, Broughton, Houston & Shafran, 1998).            Specifically, the authors noted that â€Å"a review of the reported endorsement frequencies indicated that for each age and gender group, there are 1 to 5 items that at least 20% of the parents endorsed.†This led the authors to conclude that the behavior of the children could be considered development-related sexual behaviors, and not too far removed from the mean (Friedrich, Fisher, Broughton, Houston & Shafran, 1998, p. 3).            On the other hand, the article by Ford and Kidd on Early Childhood Trauma and Disorders of Extreme Stress as Predictors of Treatment Outcome with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) sought to determine whether early childhood trauma could be considered as a predictor of the outcome of treatment for people with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. This goal is influenced by studies showing the prevalence of early childhood trauma in cases of people with recurring PTSD (Ford & Kidd).            A study with participants from patients in a PTSD live-in rehabilitation facility, who were exposed to trauma, was conducted. Most participants were classified as trauma-exposed since they came from war zone military duty. Others who did not show â€Å"pervasive avoidance and emotional numbing symptomatology†were considered people who had to trauma-related experience. Structured interviews were conducted to classify patients to determine their classification as a person with PTSD or Disorders of Extreme Stress Not Otherwise Specified (DESNOS). Participants were asked in interviews whether they were exposed to certain traumatic events, such as witnessing the death of a family member or experiencing sexual abuse. On the other hand, DESNOS was a good empirical basis for treatment planning of PTSD. DESNOS is considered a good instrument in assessing trauma and treatment planning for PSTD because it has been observed in previous studies that most war veterans with PTSD also had histories of DESNOS symptoms (Ford & Kidd).        On a different aspect of trauma and its effect on children, Gilbertson, Shenton, Ciszewski, Kasai, Lasko, Orr and Pitman (2002), investigated the validity of the hypothesis that Smaller Hippocampal Volume Predicts Pathologic Vulnerability to Psychological Trauma and conducted a study to determine the relationship between the volume of the hippocampus and the tendency of a person to develop PTSD. The researchers’ hypothesis focused on the hippocampus of animals that the hippocampus gets damaged by severe stress and that humans with stress-related psychiatric conditions have smaller hippocampal volume. Hence, the researchers investigated whether the smaller hippocampal volume comes before or after a severely stressful event. If smaller hippocampal volume comes before the event, then it would mean that it is a preexisting condition of the person and not influenced by trauma, violence or stress. On the other hand, if the smaller hippocampal volume comes after the event, then it means that it is a result of the trauma caused by the experience (Gilbertson, Shenton, Ciszewski, Kasai, Lasko, Orr, & Pitman, 2002).  Using a â€Å"case-control†design, Gilbertson, et al. conducted a study to analyze the the hippocampi volume of monozygotic twins. The twins have the same genetic makeup, which the researchers theorized any difference in the volumes of their hippocampi may be caused by external factors, such as stress. Thus, the study involved twins, where one is exposed to a traumatic event such as combat, and the other one is not exposed (Gilbertson et al, 2002). After comparison of images taken through magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the researchers concluded that the volumes of the hippocampi of the twin subjects are preexisting vulnerability factors. This means that smaller hippocampal volumes are not caused by mere exposure to stress. There conclusion was based on the finding that there was no significant difference between the hippocampal volumes of twins who were and were not exposed to traumatic events (Gilbertson et al., 2002).             In the next article however, no case study was conducted, but Perry (1997) explained the workings of the human brain in relation to exposure to violence. In Incubated in Terror: Neurodevelopmental Factors in the ‘Cycle of Violence’ In: Children, Youth and Violence: The Search for Solutions introduced the concept of a person’s adaptability to experience through a brief discussion of the process of development that began centuries ago. Perry traced the development of the human brain through a process called sociocultural evolution. Perry pointed out the human existence had long been pervaded by violence, which began from interspecies violence to interspecies violence, from prehistoric times. Perry believed that up to the present, different forms of violence, such as physical abuse, victimize of children. Thus, Perry sought answers on matters relating to the effect of violence on parents and children, particularly in the c ontext of neurodevelopment (Perry, 1997).            Perry discussed how violence affects children. This effect depends on various factors, such as the pattern and type of violence and the presence of support systems or caretakers for the child. Furthermore, Perry considered the age of the child an important factor that affects the child, considering that the human brain develops in a linear fashion, and certain developments only occur when a child reaches a specific age. Perry also believed that humans are capable of adapting to violence or trauma (Perry, 1997).            Perry also discussed the organization and function of the human brain. The brain has a hierarchical organization that functions to promote a person’s survival. Perry described that the brain matures throughout the life of a person. In relation to this development, Perry explained that there are factors affecting the process that lead to a child’s predisposition to violence. For Perry, violence is rooted in neurobiology, and factors that affect activity in different parts of the brain would affect a person’s propensity toward violence. Specifically, Perry explains that changes in the activity in the brainstem, such as stress, would increase a person’s propensity for violence (Perry, 1997).            Furthermore, Perry discussed different pathways to violence to which children may be exposed. Perry suggested that it is most dangerous when all different negative experiences, such as lack of care in childhood and physical abuse, combine and affect a child. Another important part of Perry’s observations are his discussion on the implications of the theory to the formulation of public policy. He purports that ultimately, the solution to problems of violence lie within primary prevention, through the transformation of violence (Perry, 1997).   In another article written by Perry (2001b), in â€Å"The neurodevelopmental impact of violence in childhood, in Schetky D & Benedek, E. (Eds.) Textbook of child and adolescent forensic            psychiatry, he discussed how violence affects the development of a child’s brain. Perry noted that violence pervades American society despite its many technological advances. Thus, while violence is abhorred by many, there are a few solutions presented for its avoidance (Perry, 2001b).            Perry noted that violence is multidimensional and complex. It has different effects, both on adults and children. In particular, Perry pointed out that violence causes fear in children, which has negative consequences on the neurodevelopmental changes of a child, such as causing a child to become more susceptible to being violent (Perry, 2001b).            Perry further noted that violence could be seen in various situations, such as in the home, community, school, and media. It seems that violence is everywhere. Most especially in the United States, violence can be seen in the home, as shown by statistics (Perry, 2001b).            Perry then discussed how the brain works and develops in general. He stated that the brain grows more complex with age. Such development may cause some areas of the brain, such as the higher, sub-cortical and cortical areas, to become less impulsive. In turn, this may cause the brain to have lower excitatory activity. These tendencies may lead to increased tendencies of an individual to become aggressive and violent (Perry, 2001b).            Perry then noted the growing body of evidence supporting the position that the neurodevelopment processes of an individual’s developing brain is hindered or altered by exposure to violence. Thus, exposure to violence leads to the stimulation of responses from a child’s brain, causing alterations in the brain’s development and consequences as related to the brain’s function (Perry, 2001b).            A similar discussion on the effect of trauma on the development of the brain is provided by Perry, Pollard, Blakley, Baker and Vigilante (1996). In an article entitled â€Å"Childhood Trauma, the Neurobiology of Adaptation & Use-dependent Development of the Brain: How States become Traits,†the authors provided observations on childhood trauma and its effect on the essential functioning of affected children. The researchers theorized that a mature brain is born out of developmental experiences. Therefore, neurodevelopment is important, and this occurs in a very critical point in a human’s life, which is his childhood. However, neurodevelopment is disturbed by experiences that disrupt the brain’s processes of organizing information, such as traumatic experiences (Perry, Pollard, Blakley, Baker & Vigilante, 1996).            The researchers believed that given an understanding of the effect of traumatic experiences on a child’s neurodevelopment, that modifications in public policy and societal perspectives may occur. Therefore, more research should be undertaken to explore this field of study (Perry, Pollard, Blakley, Baker & Vigilante, 1996). Conclusion.            All the articles provide insight on the relationship of various factors with children’s mental development. In particular, the articles endeavored and succeeded in analyzing data on the relationship between children’s brain development and traumatic events. There were detailed accounts on the specific brain areas that were affected by exposure to stress, such as the hippocampus and the brainstem. The time of exposure to trauma was also investigated to determine whether the size of a person’s hippocampus is predetermined prior or consequent to the exposure to stress. However, some of the articles did not discuss specific studies conducted that established the conclusions, but only discussed theories based on other studies. Therefore, more studies should be conducted, or more research made, to provide basis for some of the given conclusions. References Friedrich, W. N., Fisher, J., Broughton, D., Houston, M. & Shafran, C. R. (1998).           Normative Sexual Behavior in Children: A Contemporary Sample. Pediatrics  101(4). Retrieved February 23, 2008, from   http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/101/4/e9. Ford, J. D. & Kidd, P. Early Childhood Trauma and Disorders of Extreme Stress as                 Predictors of Treatment Outcome with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Ciszewski, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P.,    Pitman, R. K. (2002). Smaller Hippocampal Volume Predicts Pathologic   Vulnerability to Psychological Trauma. Nature Neuroscience 5(11), 1242-1247. Perry, B. D. (1997). Incubated in Terror: Neurodevelopmental Factors in the ‘Cycle of Violence’ In: Children, Youth and Violence: The Search for Solutions (J Osofsky,         Ed.). New York: Guilford Press, 124-148, Perry, B.D. (2001b). The neurodevelopmental impact of violence in childhood. In          Schetky D & Benedek, E. (Eds.) Textbook of child and adolescent forensic        psychiatry. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, Inc. (221-238) Perry, B. D., Pollard, R. A., Blakley, T. L., Baker, W. L. & Vigilante, D. (1996). Childhood            Trauma, the Neurobiology of Adaptation & Use-dependent Development of the Brain: How States become Traits. Infant Mental Health Journal.  Â
Project Motorcycles- The Comprehensive Project Plan Assignment
Project Motorcycles- The Comprehensive Project Plan - Assignment Example The target market is very prospective given the fact that a majority of the population are income holders. Another scope of this project lies in the fact that this1500 cc motorcycle is an upgrade to the 500 and 1000 cc motorcycle previously sold by the company. The previous motorcycles enjoyed huge success thereby increasing the company’s market share tremendously. This is a favorable result and therefore it is being strongly expected that the 1500 cc motorcycle will surpass the expectation of the already satisfied customers, who may be willing to have the upgraded model stocked up in their garage, as well as the potential customers. The project management plan involves appointing analysts who would be majorly responsible for conducting a thorough analysis of the market. In that way they will be able to make a precise estimation of the demand for this product in the market. Thereafter, the project manager will be working with the architects who would be entirely responsible for designing the product. The product specifications have to be clearly explained to them in order to make sure that the design is appropriate to the target customers. Following that, the required raw materials have to be procured. The project manager will then be responsible for working with the engineers and developers who would carry out the part of assembling the motorcycle. Later, in the project closure phase, the researcher will be working along with the testers who would be testing the bicycles for any manufacturing defects and other areas of performance improvement. Formulation of an effective team building strategies is extremely important in order to ensure successful completion of the project. The first and foremost strategy is conveying the objectives and goals clearly to the project team members. The project manager has to make sure that the objectives are realistic, achievable and measurable. In such a context, formulation of SMART objective is extremely
Tuesday, August 13, 2019
Discussion Topics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 9
Discussion Topics - Essay Example If not, there will be a total disaster. For instance, last summer, I volunteered in a health organization. Things there were not smooth because of the lack of communication between the manager and supervisor. The power games in the sector, according to Metoyer (2009), are based on resource and technical skill. The political roles displayed by Metoyer (2009) are sub-divided into three parts; firstly, decisional, which relies heavily on information; secondly, interpersonal, which ensures that information is well conveyed and; lastly, informational, which is the back-bone of all these roles and managerial tasks. All these need to be harmonized in the best way possible to have an effective team and ensure no conflicts occur (Johnson, 2008). In case of a conflict, it needs to be effectively resolved to avoid future reoccurrences. Conflicts are solved depending on the nature of the problem (Metoyer, 2009). The manager plays an important role to harmonize the two parties in conflict. A good manager resolves conflicts when perceived in the early stages to avoid the situation to escalate further (Johnson, 2008). The manager should resolve the conflict, appoint a unit to address employee issues and develop a system of encouragement by offering rewards to individuals who do an outstanding job. This, in turn, will initiate team building, as well as create healthy competition among the
Monday, August 12, 2019
Principles of research and evidence based practice Essay
Principles of research and evidence based practice - Essay Example The focus in this paper is on evidence-based practice in the nursing field that has gained a lot of momentum and the definitions vary. The findings of research, clinical knowledge, knowledge gathered from science, and all the medical expert opinions fall under what many in the field call "evidence" although practices that are based on research findings always tend to result in the required patient outcomes in different settings the geographic locations notwithstanding. According to Schofield, the impetus and desire for this evidence-based practice in matters nursing comes from healthcare practitioners, readily available medical information. Evidence-based practice requires changes in nursing education and other aspects like practice-relevant kind of research, and closer working relationships among all the concerned groups, that is, researchers and clinicians. Evidence-based practice does provide many opportunities for the whole concept of nursing care to be a bit more effective, indi vidualized, dynamic and streamlined. This, nevertheless, helps in minimizing the effects of the clinical judgments. In incidences where evidence is used to define some of the best practices rather than just supporting the existing practices, the profession of nursing care manages to keep pace with some of the latest technological advancements and also takes advantage, in many ways, of new medical research findings and knowledge developments. The different types of evidences vary on the basis of the fact that they are normally from different sources. This evidence based practices, often abbreviated as EBP, basically aims at applying the best valid and reliable evidence which has been gained by use of scientific method to making clinical decisions. This evidence for practice is extremely important in the sense that it seeks to help in assessing the strength and validity of evidence of the benefits and risks of treatment, or even lack of it and medical diagnostic tests. It helps clinicians to learn and be in a position to know whether given treatments plan will do more harm or good. According to Margolis (1999, pg. 135,) the evidence’s quality can be accessed on the basis of the type of source, that is, from those clinical tests that are controlled and trials, systematic and analytical reviews of the double-blind variety, and not forgetting other aspects like conventional wisdom. This can also be based on other factors like clinical relevance, validity of the statistics, and currency. According to Ehrenberg (2003, pg 281,) evidence based practice recognizes the fact that most of the aspects of medical and health care depend on very particular and individual factors like quality or  life value judgments, and this are normally subject to scientific research methods. This evidence based practice , however, attempts to clarify those medical activities and practice parts that are principle and part of the scientific methods and applying tho se methods in ensuring that best prediction of expected outcomes in treatment of medical illnesses , even as the raging debate on what desirable outcomes should be (Ramstadius,1997,pg. 5). The research process is well known by most of the researchers in the medical field. Those involved in the carrying out of research in evidence based practice, if the current research finding are anything to go by, are well versed with the scientific research process. The systematic process that characterises research has to be strictly adhered to whenever those who intend to do any kind of medical researching .This ensures that the findings and data that is collected
Sunday, August 11, 2019
Character Analysis on EDNA from the novel The Awakening by Kate Essay
Character Analysis on EDNA from the novel The Awakening by Kate Choplin - Essay Example Bloom posits that women of this time were barred from agitating for their independence and self-actualization (51). In contrast, Edna rediscovers her self -worth and acknowledges her emotional urges. This makes her abandon her former, domineering husband. She later marries Robert. In all the maneuvers, Edna, in a bid to break free from the societal norms and expectation, finds that her independence will attract isolation from the society. This owes to the general belief of many women in the society during that time. According to Bloom, Edna’s husband also objects her clamor for independence given that he strongly believes in the doctrines of society pertaining to the position of a woman in society (39). In her pursuit of painting, Edna is able to realize the beauty of individual creation and architecture. This makes her seek self-independence, regardless of the inevitable hurdles of society. Her quest for independence is emotionally driven and events happen in a sequential manner with regard to her quest for autonomy. Robert’s passion for Edna’s love is not strong enough to overcome his sense of morality. In fact, the note that Robert leaves behind is evident to Edna that she was alone despite the fact that she has obtained the hard-earned independence and self-achievement. The note articulated the fact that Robert was not ready to contravene the societal norms pertaining to women. This confirms that loneliness presents room for the independence Edna desires. The discovery of self-expression by Edna informs her of her long overdue independence. In fact, the awakening of Edna makes her learn three new concepts, including the mode of expression for the Creole women. The Creole women express themselves in a free manner and share their feelings regardless of their chastity. In addition, Edna is challenged by their faithfulness and liberty. In this regard, Edna learns that she is the architect of her
Saturday, August 10, 2019
Psychological Analis of Sex Offenders Lab Report
Psychological Analis of Sex Offenders - Lab Report Example Over the years questions have been raised regarding constitutional challenges and concerns. Introduction Over the years the approaches to legislations governing the registration and the publication of sex offenders have always been primarily geared towards reducing the probability of repeat offences. The general realization is that sex offenders always demonstrate the tendency to repeat the sexual offences when relevant measures are not taken to sensitize the public and to construct deterring mechanisms. The essence of having sexual offenders register themselves is to ensure that during parole, the parole officers can keep track of the progress and ensure that the offenders are not in circumstances that might tempt them to repeat the offences. Although, various states are responsible for establishing their own systems and procedures when it comes to registration and publication of sexual offenders the federal government has existing laws to act as guidelines. The guidelines are clear ly outlined in the â€Å"Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children Act of 1994, Megan’s Law of 1996, and Pam Lychner Sexual Offender Tracking and Identification Act of 1996†(Maddan, 2008, p. 10). ... In addition the paper will also address the extent to which the approaches employed by the state of Minnesota helps in preventing repeat offences by the offenders, sensitizes and protects the public and assists the authorities in keeping track of the movements and activities of sexual offenders. State Regulations in Minnesota Statistics from the state of Minnesota have prompted authorities within the state to construct legislations to ensure that communities are effectively notified of any sex offenders living within their neighborhoods. According to (Minnesota Police Department, 2011), most sexual offenders target people that know them and apparently trust them. In addition, most offenders who had been to prison were found to engage in child molestation, incest and rape with people who knew them very well. Therefore the legislations within Minnesota have always been geared towards addressing the issue of notifying communities concerning offenders living within their neighborhoods. T he legislations include the Minnesota Statute 243.166 and the Community Notification Act of 1996. The general realization is that it is usually inevitable to have sex offenders living among other members of the community due to law provisions that require offenders to spend a specific period of time in prison. In Minnesota the state regulations only require offenders to spend only two thirds of their sentences behind bars and the rest free but under the supervision of probation officers. Once the sexual offenders have been released and they will be required to adhere with certain registration regulation depending on the risk levels they have been assigned. Like most states Minnesota assigns sexual offenders one
Friday, August 9, 2019
Reading Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3
Reading Summary - Essay Example to identify changing customers’ requirements, identify adjacencies that may complement its existing products and in general, developed new products that anticipate customers’ needs. The networked solution generates pool of creative ideas that are tested for their relevance and undergo comprehensive R&D, marketing research, marketing and other functions before they are launched. It has given P&G significant competitive advantage in the market. ‘Tapping the World’s Innovation Hot Spots’ informs one about the different ways firms innovate in order to meet their strategic goals. The authors have broadly identified five major models of innovations that are used by firms: focused factory; brute force; Hollywood; large-scale ecosystem; and system integration. Focused factory model concentrates on few tasks or fields using talent pool to innovate. Brute force utilizes large number of ideas to develop highly useful and creative products. Firms forge alliances with universities and academia to tap new ideas. Hollywood model helps create special place like Silicon Valley where smart entrepreneurs gather and thrash out new ideas for innovation. Large-scale ecosystem is developed as response to emergencies or external environment like economic breakdown. Initiatives are often taken by national governments that give incentives to domestic agencies. System integration refers to services including R&D facilities and infrastructure that may be used by other firms to align their corporate strategies with models of innovation that best complement their competencies or requirements. The article is important as it expands on firm’s innovation
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